Preliminary Filming Task - Evaluation

Click here for the video.

Overall, I think we did okay for this task. Filming did not go particularly well. The group was often unfocused or off-task. However, editing was fine and we completed the editing within a lesson.

There are a few issues with the video. The dialogue between the two characters is too fast. There was no pause between the speech, which not only made it unnaturally fast, but also made editing the various angles in and have the conversation match up well was very difficult. There should have been longer pauses between all of the dialogue. When Josh stands up and shouts, you can still hear Sara saying the previous line. Another issue with the video is that between the shots of Sara walking in and being sat down, her handbag disappears and she has her arms crossed. This is another issue with everything being filmed too quickly and less focus on attention to detail. Lighting is also an issue. When we turned off the lights behind Josh, we intended to darken his side to connote that he is a more malevolent character, however, doing this only darkened the lighting on Sara.

On the other hand, we did make a successful split-screen. This was to show the status of each character as Sara was making her way to the meeting. We added this because we want to use multiple split screens in our opening sequence and took this as a chance to practice. The action match also went well. There was another angle to it but it didn't work out well in the final edit because it made the action look rather disjointed. Also, during the dialogue, we kept to the 180 degree rule and used shot/reverse shot editing.

Next time, we will continue to consider the 180 degree rule, shot/reverse shot, and other editing techniques such as action matches. However, will make sure to focus on the task at hand, pay more attention to detail in our shots, and allow enough space for smooth editing.

Preliminary Filming Task - Video

Research Into Romance Genre

Romance can be defined as a genre in which the plot revolves around the love between two protagonists. They often centre around themes of issues within love, but can include themes such as forbidden love, love triangles, and love at first sight. Romance films have no conventional tone. They can be happy, tragic, or many other emotions, but romance films aim to evoke strong emotions in the audience.

There are a variety of sub-genres to romance. Here are the main ones:

• Romantic Drama - Romantic dramas tend to explore the complex side of love. They conventionally revolve around an obstacle between the two protagonists preventing love between them. Obstacles can include forbidden love, family disapproval, or even one's own psychological obstacles.
• Romantic Comedy - Romantic comedies tend to be light-hearted and humorous, exploring romantic ideals such as true love and its ability to surpass most obstacles. The two protagonists are usually placed in a humorous situation.

Conventionally, the two protagonists are a male and a female. LGBT couples and characters are uncommon in both the romance genre and the film industry as a whole. Romantic films conventionally end with either the couple breaking up (common in romantic dramas) or a happy ending. Romance films are often "feel-good" films, intending for the audience to walk away with a positive message or improved outlook. Romantic comedies tend to be feel-good films.

Lighting in romance films is conventionally very natural or soft. The lighting is often very realistic and relies on the lighting provided in a "normal" setting. This is with the intention of making the film relatable and believable. Colours tend to be very natural, soft, yet also bright, to signify the nature of love and its development and also the commonly happy and upbeat themes. Red is commonly used in romance films because it signifies passion and love. Conventional props in romance films include items such as flowers, gifts, and chocolates. These are props that people commonly associate with love and romance.

Romance films are conventionally set in well-known locations such as large cities like New York. This is because the films are supposed to be as relatable as possible to engross and involve the audience. Characters are conventionally represented as believable and "normal" people. Costumes are also conventionally very "normal". The male character tends to wear smart yet casual clothing to reflect professionalism but that he is down to earth and comfortable with himself. The female character will often wear colourful and appealing clothing that emphasises her figure in order to be appealing to the male character.

Music in romance films is conventionally employed to indicate the emotional mood. Therefore, the type of music used in romance films varies based on the sub-genre, tone, or theme. Romantic comedies might employ a happy, upbeat soundtrack in order to match the tone of the film, whereas a romantic drama might employ soft, dramatic music to match the focus on the complexity and obstacles in love.

The conventional target audience for romance films is white, working/middle class, heterosexual, females, aged 15-34. This is because representation of protagonists in romance films tends to be restricted to white straight couples of working or middle class. The target gender is female because women are stereotypically more emotional or susceptible to emotional themes. In terms of psychographics, romance films appeal to aspirers and mainstreamers. Aspirers want a better life, and will want to watch romance films for inspiration and to have something to aspire to, since relationships are held in society as something important in being a functioning person. Mainstreamers prefer to be like most other people. Therefore they will want to watch romance films since they are quite a mainstream genre. Also, relationships are seen as a "normal" thing and if you're not in a relationship you're abnormal.

Examples of famous romance films include Titanic (1997), The Notebook (2004), Love Actually (2003), and The Fault in Our Stars (2014). Actors and actresses that are commonly in romance films include people such as Hugh Grant, Channing Tatum, Leonardo DiCaprio, Sandra Bullock, Cameron Diaz, and Julia Roberts. Directors that typically make romance films include Woody Allen and Rob Reiner.

Propp's Character Theory

Vladimir Propp thinks that all narratives contain the same character types who all contribute something towards the narrative. These are the character types:

• Protagonist - Leads the narrative, tries to solve the disruption.
• Antagonist - Tries to prevent the protagonist from achieving resolution.
• Dispatcher - Someone who gives the quest to the hero and/or sends them on their quest.
• Princess/Prize - A male or female prize for the protagonist.
• Helper - A character whose job is to help the protagonist (often a sidekick).
• Donor - A character who gives the protagonist something which helps them in their quest.

I took Propp's character theory and applied it to our viewing of Steven Spielberg's Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Here are my findings:

Protagonist

• Young Indy - He takes the cross from the miners because he believes it should be placed in a museum for everyone's benefit rather than being made part of a private collection.
• Indiana Jones - He is the character that the audience is meant to identify with. He battles for resolution and creates a new equilibrium in the story.

Antagonist

• Miners - They are taking the cross for their own benefit when it should be put in a museum. When Indy tries to do just that, they chase him down and get the cross back.
• Panama Hat (Man in White Suit) - He is trying to take the cross for his own benefit.
• Dr. Elsa Schneider - Elsa reveals herself to be an antagonist when she is pretending to be held hostage by one of the Nazis and reveals herself as being on their side when Indiana slides his father's notebook to her.
• Walter Donovan - Donovan turns out to be on the Nazi's side as well and is only trying to find the Holy Grail to help them.
• Nazi General - He tries to torture Indiana and his father.

Dispatcher

• Walter Donovan - He sends Indiana on his quest for the Holy Grail in the first place.
• Henry Jones - He makes Indiana go to Berlin to get his notebook back.

Princess/Prize

• Dr. Elsa Schneider - She needed to be rescued from the Nazis.

Helper

• Marcus Brody - He helps Indiana in Venice.
• Dr. Elsa Schneider - She acts as Indiana and Marcus' guide in Venice.
• Sallah - He does a lot of fighting and sourcing for Indiana on his quest.

Donor

• Henry Jones - He gives Indiana his notebook, which provides Indiana with essential cues on his quest for the Holy Grail.

Murch's Editing Theory - "Gone Girl"

Click here for more information on Walter Murch's "Rule of Six".

I have chosen to analyse the trailer for David Fincher's Gone Girl (2014) for the use of the various aspects of Walter Murch's "Rule of Six". The genre I would like to use for my opening sequence is either thriller or drama, therefore I have chosen Gone Girl, which fits in to both. Here is the trailer I will be analysing:

Emotion

• Slow editing in the beginning to show the romance between the two characters. It allows the audience to see how they look at each other and him leaning in to kiss her. You can see they are both happy and have strong feelings for each other.
• When the police are in the man's house, the editing is fast. It connotes the tension and hostility in the room and between the characters. The close-ups also mean that the audience can see their facial expressions. The police look as though they think he is the suspect, and he is uncomfortable and taken aback by their assertions.

Story

• In the beginning, you can see the man and woman kiss, and a ring being revealed from a book. This denotes to the audience that they are in a serious relationship and are becoming engaged.
• A few shots later, a silhouette is shown walking towards her menacingly. This denotes that something bad is going to happen to her and disrupt the equilibrium.
• The next shot is her face on a missing persons billboard. This denotes to the audience that she is missing. This is the disruption in the main plot.
• The police are shown in the man's house, treating him as the suspect. This connotes that the battle for resolution involves the assertion that he is the person that made her go missing.
• Multiple shots are shown that involve him and others looking for her and him talking to people about her. This connotes that the battle for resolution is mainly about finding his partner.

Rhythm

• The editing goes from roughly mid-speed in the beginning to fast in the end. This connotes that the film will have a long, steadily-paced build up in rhythm.

Eye-Trace

• In the first few shots, the audience is made to look at the characters' facial expressions. One of the shots also involves an engagement ring being revealed. They connote and denote that they are in a serious relationship respectively.
• Later on in the trailer, the camera pans toward a pile of broken glass and furniture. It connotes that someone is in danger, and when combined with the previous shot, that the woman is in danger.
• The shot in which the policewoman is placing a marker next to the blood on the door frame draws the audiences attention to the blood. This connotes that the woman has been at least injured by her attacker.

Two-Dimensional Plane of Screen

• As aforementioned, the engagement ring being revealed from the book in the restaurant denotes to the audience that the two characters are in a serious relationship.
• As aforementioned again, the blood on the door frame when the police are in the man's house connote that the woman has been at least injured by her attacker and that the man is a potential suspect.

Three-Dimensional Space of Action

• The editing is slower in the beginning of the trailer to let the audience see that the man and woman are very comfortable around each other (talking, kissing).
• When the police are in the man's house, the camera is placed so that you can see that him and the police are spaced a fair distance away from each other. This connotes the hostility between the characters to the audience.

Todorov's Narrative Structure

Tsvetan Todorov thinks that all narratives, whether they are in films, TV programmes, or otherwise, contain the same narrative structure. The structure consists of the following:

• Equilibrium - where everything is happy and normal.
• Disruption - something happens to disrupt the normality.
• Battle for Resolution - someone tries to restore equilibrium by solving the disruption.
• New Equilibrium - where everything becomes happy and normal again.

Over two lessons we watched Steven Spielberg's Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) to analyse it for Todorov's theory. Here is what I found (contains spoilers):

The film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade follows Todoroc's narrative structure theory. His theory suggests that all narratives have the same narrative structure: equilibrium, disruption, battle for resolution, and new equilibrium. It can be applied to both the small plot in the introduction and the main film plot. For instance, in the small plot, it begins as a standard scouting trip (the equilibrium). Then young Indy (River Phoenix) finds the miners digging for the cross (the disruption). Indiana proceeds to take the cross from them and try to escape with it on horseback and then a train with the miners in pursuit (battle for resolution). Young Indy manages to get away with the cross and calls the police, hoping to have it put in a museum, only for the miners to have the police on their side. The cross is returned to the miners (the new equilibrium).

In the main plot, it begins with Indiana Jones (Harrison Ford) teaching at his university as normal (the equilibrium). When he is overwhelmed by students asking for help outside his office, he climbs out of his office window to escape. Indiana is walking down the road when a car stops and some men step out to take him to Walter Donovan (Julian Glover). Donovan sends him on a quest for the Holy Grail (the disruption). The film continues with a search far and wide for clues about the grail's location with many problems along the way (the battle for resolution). Eventually, Indiana makes it to the grail room. He chooses the correct grail whereas Donovan does not, meaning he can save his father freely (he was shot by Donovan previously). Elsa Schneider (Alison Doody) tries to take the grail out of the temple but this causes the temple to collapse with the grail inside. The heroes ride of into the sunset (the new equilibrium).

Binary Opposites in "The Dark Knight"

The following is a practice assignment on binary opposites in a clip (chapters 22-24) from Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight (2008).

A variety of binary opposites are represented in The Dark Knight and structured through a variety of visual, audio, and technical codes. I will be analysing the representation of binary opposites in chapters 22-24 of The Dark Knight.

First of all, the lighting in the beginning of the scene creates binary opposites. As the commissioner walks in to the interrogation room, his side of the room is lit. When the camera cuts to reveal the Joker, his side of the room is pitch black behind him. This lighting effect connotes a sense of good versus evil and hope versus despair. The light connotes that the commissioner has good intentions behind his actions and that he is hopeful that he succeeds in getting information from the Joker and saving the other characters. However, the darkness on the Joker's side of the room connotes that he's unwilling to give up the information and has negative intentions. It also connotes that he's lost hope in the police or society in general, especially since he's working against them.

Another visual code is the difference in costumes between the Batman and the Joker. Batman's suit is very clean-cut, well-shaped, and orderly. It's also entirely black, which adds another level of order. Alternatively, the Joker's outfit is very creased and messy, with a variety of colours. His hair and face are also very messy and dirty. Their contrasting outfits connote oppositions of order versus chaos and potentially hope versus despair. Batman's all-black, tidy outfit represents order, whereas the Joker's colourful, untidy outfit represents chaos. Batman's suit could also be seen as a representation of vigilante justice: the hope of the people. The Joker's outfit could represent despair; he's turned his back on the world and makes no attempt to meet its standards.

Secondly, there are also audio codes that represent binary oppositions. For instance, the Joker asks the commissioner: “Does it depress you, commissioner, to know how alone you really are?” The commissioner responds: “Where is he?” This dialogue represents good versus evil and hope versus despair. The Joker is trying to get into the commissioner's head. This connotes that he's evil because he's trying to manipulate the 'good' side in his favour. It also connotes that he's in despair because he's really alone and wants others to try and understand his pain. The commissioner, however, stays on topic and continues to question the Joker. This connotes that he's good because he's doing everything he can to try and get information out of the Joker, but also connotes that he's hopeful because he believes that he is capable of getting information from the Joker.

Another piece of dialogue that represents another binary opposition is between Batman and the Joker. The Joker says: “You have all these rules,” to which Batman replies: “I have one rule.” This dialogue represents the opposition between order and chaos again. The Joker is criticising Batman and society for their various rules, which connotes that the Joker is very disorderly. On the other hand, Batman defends himself by simplifying his guidelines. This connotes that Batman is very pro-order, emphasised by him making his system of order simplified by having one rule only.

Thirdly, there are technical codes that represent the binary oppositions. In approximately the first third of the clip, when the commissioner and Joker are conversing, they always stay in separate shots. The camera switches between facing each character individually when they speak, making sure to capture the lighting differences behind each character. This represents the binary oppositions of good versus evil and also serves to emphasise how different the two extremes are too. The separate shots connote that the characters oppose so much in good or evil intentions and character that they cannot be seen in the same light.

Another technical code is identifiable when Batman is attacking the Joker. When the camera is focused on Batman, it is angled upwards to his face, whereas when it is focused on the Joker, it is angled down to his face. This represents the good versus evil opposition again. The camera aiming up to Batman connotes that he is morally higher than the Joker, representing the good 'side'. However, the camera aiming down to the Joker connotes that he is also morally below Batman, representing evil.

With these codes in mind, it is clear that the audience is positioned to identify with and support Batman and are positioned to see the Joker from a negative perspective and see him as a threat or disturbance. Through a variety of visual, audio, and technical codes, The Dark Knight represents a variety of binary opposites: good versus evil, hope versus despair, and order versus chaos.

By Michael Vodden

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We may be able to use binary opposites in our opening sequence. They are often used in romance films on the main characters. This is based around the idea of "opposites attract", with each party of the intended couple being the binary opposite of the other. For example, you could have one of them be shy and the other be outgoing, or one rich and one poor. Binary opposites might be good to include in our opening sequence to make it more conventional.

Representation of Lady Gaga in "Fame" Advert

The following is an assignment on the representation of Lady Gaga in her advertisement for her "Fame" perfume. This is the advert:

I will be analysing the representation of Lady Gaga in the advert for her “Fame” perfume. More specifically, I will evaluate whether or not she fits into Gauntlett and McRobbie's view of female representation or not and whether she is subject to Mulvey's 'Male Gaze' theory and/or Freud's Madonna/Whore complex.

Gauntlett and McRobbie's view suggests that some women are represented in a reversal of the traditional 'male gaze', represented as confident, self-aware, and assertive, and that this is not a negative thing. In fact, it provides productive tension. I think that Lady Gaga does fit in to Gauntlett and McRobbie's view of female representation. For example, she is connoted to be superior to the men on her in a variety of ways. First of all, she is larger than all of the men in the image combined. This connotes that the men are not only smaller than her physically, but also in other aspects too, such as in morality and mindedness. Her superior size also connotes that she is somewhat unattainable or God-like in comparison to the men. Secondly, her body language and facial expression connote a sense of superiority as well. For instance, she is staring up and into the distance with a blank facial expression. This connotes that the men are not worthy of her nor her attention. Her blank expression connotes that she is impassive to whatever the men do. Moreover, her up-turned head connotes snobbery towards the men, as though they are insignificant and ill-superior to her. Finally, her body language is very casual, as though she is lounging. This connotes that she is unfazed and feels relaxed this way, in spite of the men clambering over her body. This variety of connotations of superiority, confidence, and assertiveness fits into Gauntlett and McRobbie's view of female representation.

Laura Mulvey's 'Male Gaze' theory suggests that the male gaze asks the man to project his fantasies onto the female figure, who is styled accordingly. In their traditional role, women are styled to maximise visual and erotic impact and to play to male desire. I think that Lady Gaga is primarily not subject to the male gaze, but it is questionable. First of all, her face and mask connote no attempt to pander to male desire. She isn't looking at camera, connoting that she doesn't care to give the male audience her attention and doesn't need or want to play to their desires. Her mask furthers this point. By hiding her face from the camera, she connotes disdain towards the viewer. However, she is essentially naked, with the exception of her feet. This could be viewed two ways. On one hand, you could argue that she is subject to the male gaze. She leaves little to the imagination and only covers the legal necessities. By having her arm over head, she connotes that she's presenting herself. On the other hand, you could view it as teasing. Gaga still leaves some of herself to the imagination and her disdainful posture and facial expression connote that she has no interest in being subjected to the male gaze or pandering to male desires. She's covered herself with other men as well, connoting that she's teasing the men viewing the ad, in a “you won't experience this” way. Her disdainful bodily expressions and connotations of 'teasing' make me think that Lady Gaga is not subject to the male gaze, however, her minimal coverage makes that questionable.

Sigmund Freud's 'Madonna/Whore complex' is a psychological complex said to develop in the male when he sees all women not as individuals, but as either saintly 'Madonna's': a good and pure saint, or prostitute-like 'Whores': evil sexual temptresses. I believe that Lady Gaga fits into the 'whore' category of Freud's theory. First of all, she's acting as a sexual temptress. She's essentially naked in a lounging position with men climbing around her body. The traditional belief of sexual activity or being 'sexy' is that it's a dirty and shameful act. However, Lady Gaga shows no shame and is clearly unfazed by having lots of men climbing around her. In order to fit into the Madonna category and be 'saintly', she'd have to be covered up and not covered in men. Another connotation that conforms to the 'whore' category is the connotation of 'evil'. By using a black background, Gaga connotes evil, mystery, and strength. These are attributes that someone with the Madonna/Whore complex would not like to see in a 'Madonna'. Moreover, by being so disdainful to the men and the camera, she shows no interest in commitment with anyone, further conforming to the 'whore' category of Freud's theory. Overall, her shamelessness and disdain to the audience connotes that she fits into the 'whore' category of Freud's Madonna/Whore complex.

In conclusion, Lady Gaga uses a variety of connotations to fit into the various theories differently. Examples of the connotations are her superior size in comparison to the men, her disdainful body and facial expression, minimal censorship, and a black background. I believe she does fit into Gauntlett and McRobbie's view of female representation because she does show a reversal of the male gaze. I don't think she fits into Mulvey's 'Male Gaze' because of her connotations of disdain and her 'teasing' of the male audience. Finally, I think she fits into the 'whore' category of Freud's Madonna/Whore complex because of her shamelessness and disdain.

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Since our opening sequence will feature a female as one of the main characters, we may want to take these theories into consideration. Conventionally in the romance genre, women do not fit in to Gauntlett and McRobbie's view of female representation. Since we want our opening sequence to be a conventional romance and show this clearly, we will likely not use Gauntlett and McRobbie's view of female representation. Women can be subjected to the 'Male Gaze' in romance films, but that is not what we want to go with. Our film is closer to a romance/drama feel-good film rather than a film with any such sexualisation on any degree. We also have a target audience of females. We will likely not apply Freud's Madonna/Whore complex because we want our female characters to be individuals and appeal to a female audience.

Communication of Genre in Film Trailers

The following is an assignment on the communication of genre in the film trailers for John McTiernan's Die Hard (1988) and Edgar Wright's Hot Fuzz (2007). Here are the trailers:

Genre is communicated through a variety of codes and conventions specific to the genres being communicated. I will be analysing the way the trailers for Die Hard (1988) and Hot Fuzz (2007) communicate genre, whether they fit clearly into one genre, and how their genres have stayed popular over time.

In the Die Hard trailer, the action genre is communicated through a variety of codes and conventions. For example, the trailer uses a deep-voiced, dramatic voice-over. Early in the trailer, it says: “A New York cop John McClane (Bruce Willis) has come to see his wife; instead, he's going to have to save her.” This connotes that the film is of the action genre because the voice-over explains the basic premise and protagonist and increases the dramatic effect, something common in action trailers. The quote also leads onto another action film convention, a romantic sub-plot. McClane's wife has been taken hostage by the terrorists and now he has to save her. It's common in action films to have a romantic interest for the protagonist: something to fight for or to “win”. Another example of romantic sub-plots in action films is the “Bond girls” in James Bond films.

Another convention that has become expected of action films are binary opposites. These are clear protagonists/antagonists. The trailer makes it clear that John McClane, the protagonist, is a recognisably normal cop that goes out of his way to do the right thing. He can be seen participating in gun fights with the antagonists and rigorous amounts of physical activity for his cause. However, you can also clearly see who the antagonist is: Hans Gruber (Alan Rickman). He's the ring leader of the terrorists. Gruber is differentiated by his smart attire compared to the rest of the terrorists and that he is doing all of the negotiation work while the rest of them do the 'grunt' work. Finally, a reliable convention of action films is lots of explosions, weaponry and violence. Approximately halfway through the trailer, you can see McClane being fired at by a helicopter. He continues to blow up an office and an elevator shaft, with the whole top of the tower exploding at the end of the trailer. This connotes that Die Hard is an action film because they increase tension and make the film exciting and dangerous.

The Hot Fuzz trailer also communicates the action genre strongly but in parody form. As such, it also has lots of elements of various other film genres. For example, it also uses a dramatic voice-over. However, it itself is exaggerated and it also serves to further the exaggeration of the protagonist, Nicholas Angel (Simon Pegg). The voice-over says: “Expert in hand-to-hand combat, armed response, and high speed pursuit.” This connotes the action genre because of the added drama from the voice-over and the highly skilled protagonist. Another action convention is violence, weaponry, and special effects. The characters can be seen equipping unrealistic and unnecessary amounts of weaponry and ammunition in the trailer. There are also a multitude of exploding buildings. These exaggerate the action genre. The film continues to mock the action genre with a very normal, uninspiring location. Action films conventionally feature exotic, dangerous locations. However, Hot Fuzz is set in the countryside village of Sandford, quoted “the safest village in the country.”

As aforementioned, the film also uses a lot of conventions from other genres. For instance, Danny Butterman (Nick Frost) is shown sitting with the children on a school visit. He asks Angel: “Is it true that there's a place in a man's head that, if you shoot it, it will blow up?” This connotes that the film is also of the comedy genre due to the childishness of the comment from an adult. Action films do have humorous dialogue, but conventionally in the form of one-liners, such as “Lady, do I sound like I'm ordering a pizza?!” in Die Hard. The film trailer also features a horror convention, with a violent murder scene halfway through the trailer. The murderer uses a scythe as a murder weapon to kill a man while a blonde woman looks on, screaming shrilly.

Rick Altman believes that genre is constructed through semantic and syntactic elements. Die Hard clearly falls into the action genre. It uses a large variety of semantics common to action films such as the dramatic narration, exciting music, multitude of weapon props, violence, and special effects. There are also the syntactic elements such as right versus wrong with binary opposites, love through a romantic sub-plot, and humour through one-liners and quips. Another genre theory is that of Steve Neale, who believes that genres are part of a cycle: “Form finds itself”, “classic”, “pushes boundaries”, “parody”, and “homage”. Die Hard is a “classic” which means that its associated with the genre by most audiences and adds elements that will become conventional of the genre.

On the other hand, Hot Fuzz doesn't fit into a particular genre, as per Robert Stam's theory that genre doesn't really exist as most texts overlap genre boundaries. Hot Fuzz has a variety of aforementioned action and comedy elements, but also crime elements (due to the twin detectives), horror elements (due to the murder scene in the dressing room), and western elements (due to the stand-offs and gun fights). The film also fits in to Steve Neale's theory in the “parody” stage. Hot Fuzz parodies the action genre. Parodies focus on elements commonly repeated in films of a genre and mocks them, often through exaggeration, the specifics of which for Hot Fuzz have been mentioned.

The action genre has stayed popular throughout the years because audiences love an energetic experience that allows them to live vicariously through conquests, explorations, and confrontations with the main characters. This has been demonstrated by the large amount of Bond films that have been made: twenty-three official films in total. The series started with Dr No (1962) and has so far continued to Skyfall (20H12). The Die Hard series itself has also proven this itself with five instalments in its series so far, starting with Die Hard (1988) and continuing to A Good Day to Die Hard (2013).

Parodies have remained popular for a long time because they make the audience feel intellectual through referential humour. The audience understands the references that the film makes and feels smart because of it. Parodies have been around for a long time, since The Little Train Robbery (1905) which was a sequel to The Great Train Robbery (1903) but with all of the actors replaced with children. Parodies continue to this day in much higher numbers with films such as The World's End (2013).

In conclusion, Die Hard communicates the action genre really strongly with conventions such as binary opposites, a romantic sub-plot, violence, dangerous situations, and humorous dialogue. Through these semantic elements and a variety of aforementioned syntactic ones, the trailer acts as evidence of Rick Altman's genre theory. However, Hot Fuzz doesn't lend itself to a particular genre and can only really be described as a parody, as per Steve Neale's theory. It uses a lot of conventions from a lot of genres, crossing the boundaries so much that it doesn't really have a specific genre, fitting in to Robert Stam's genre theory very well. Action has stayed popular because people love to live vicariously through the main characters' experiences, whereas parodies have stayed popular because they make the audience feel intellectual.

Narrative Theories

Roland Barthes' Theory

Barthes suggests that directors include enigma codes in texts as "narrative hooks" to engage the audience. These are parts of the story that are unexplained or unanswered at first, that require the audience to consume the whole text to find out the answers. These are often referred to as "narrative enigmas". An example of narrative enigmas in a horror film could be "who is the man in the mask?" or "what happened to the girl who was kidnapped at the start?" The film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989, Steven Spielberg) uses narrative enigmas throughout the film. For example:

• "What relevance does the gold cross have?"
• "Why has Donovan brought Indiana to him?"
• "What happened to Indiana's dad?"
• "Why are the Nazis involved?"

Claude Levi-Strauss' Theory

Levi-Strauss suggests that narratives revolve around conflict. Without conflict, the audience would not be engaged. He calls the two things that conflict "binary opposites". These are things that are completely different, such as good versus evil, order versus disorder, or youth versus age. He believes that without this conflict, the audience would not be engaged. Indiana Jones also uses binary opposites. For instance:

• Indiana Jones vs. Nazis = Good vs. Evil
• Venice vs. Strasbourg = Safety vs. Danger
• Indiana Jones vs. Henry Jones = Youth vs. Age
• Indiana Jones vs. Henry Jones = Action vs. Thought
• Henry Jones vs. Nazis = Knowledge vs. Strength

I have also made a post about binary opposites in The Dark Knight here.

Genre Theories

Rick Altman's Theory

Rick Altman's genre theory suggests that genre is made up of two different elements:

• Semiotic elements - physical conventions such as props, costumes, locations, colours etc.
• Syntactic elements - emotional themes such as love, hate, heroism, cowardice etc.

Steve Neale's Theory

Steve Neale's genre theory suggests that genre goes through a cycle and changes throughout its lifespan. The genre will change its signs, orientation, or expectations in order to move to the next stage of the cycle. His theoretical cycle is this:

• Form finds itself - it's ground breaking, sometimes making a new genre from an old one.
• Classic - it's associated with the genre by the majority of people.
• Pushes boundaries - take the classic film and tweak bits to do something unexpected.
• Parody - an imitation of films in the genre with deliberate exaggeration for comedic effect.
• Homage - it makes references to other famous films from the genre as a mark of respect.

He also believes that genre is enjoyed by audiences because of either the repetition of a repertoire of elements or because the director makes a change to that repertoire.

Robert Stam's Theory

Robert Stam believes that genre doesn't really exist. He thinks that trying to classify something is too simple. In reality, he believes that every text has elements of hundreds of different genres, sub-genres, and hybrid genres. This makes them impossible to 'pigeon hole'.

Murch's Editing Theory

Walter Murch, editor of films like The Godfather III and Apocalypse Now, and wrote The Blink of an Eye. Murch believes that "The Rule of Six" lays out a set of criteria that Murch believes should be at the top of an editor's list when working.

In descending order of importance:

• Emotion - 51%
• Story - 23%
• Rhythm - 10%
• Eye-trace - 7%
• Two-dimesional plane of screen - 5%
• Three-dimensional space of action - 4%

In our lesson we watched two film clips and were asked: "Does the editing in the clip conform to or challenge Murch's theory?"

Shaun of the Dead (2004) (Edgar Wright)

One of the clips we watched was for Edgar Wright's Shaun of the Dead. It does not conform to The Rule of Six. The clip focuses more on the characters and how they interact with each other. The clip begins with slow editing. This connotes that the characters are tired and lazy. The second shot also shows all of the rubbish and the untidiness of the room. Shaun (Simon Pegg) has to step over Ed (Nick Frost) to sit down on the sofa. These connote that Ed is slobbish, lazy, and burdensome to his roommates.

The editing then speeds up when Shaun is getting ready for work. This connotes that Shaun is rushing to get ready and thus he is unorganised. When he closes the mirror cabinet, the mirror reveals Pete (Peter Serafinowicz) standing behind Shaun with his arms crossed. This connotes that the characters are not particularly comfortable around each other. When the characters are talking to each other in the kitchen, you can see again that they are not comfortable with each other. They stand on the other side of the room from each other, and Shaun moves to the other side when Ed moves to his side. It's rather more reminiscent of an office relationship as opposed to a friendly one.

As such, I conclude that this clip from Shaun of the Dead does not conform to Murch's Rule of Six.

Inglorious Basterds (2009) (Quentin Tarantino)

However, the other flim clip we watched was for Quentin Tarantino's Inglorious Basterds, which does conform to Murch's Rule of Six. The scene focuses on emotion, rhythm, and story. It begins with slow shots in order to build suspense and let the audience get emotionally involved. The shots zoom in to close-ups of the characters' faces to emphasise their emotions. You can see that Colonel Hans Landa (Cristoph Waltz) is very comfortable in the situation because he is in control. He dominates the room by smiling, lighting and smoking his pipe, and having most of the dialogue. When the camera zooms in to the farmer's face, you can see how uncomfortable, miserable, and frustrated he is. You can also see a single tear roll down his cheek. When the camera zooms in to the Colonel's face, you can see his facial expression transition from friendly to serious and annoyed.

The scene continues to the Colonel calling in his soldiers. When they begin shooting the floor, the editing speeds up, breaking the tension, and furthering the story. At the end of the scene, a woman is seen running into the distance, thickening the story again. The soundtrack during the scene is also very effective at conveying emotion. The music slowly builds up as the scene goes on, until it become very load and jarring when the floor is being shot. This could be used as a representation of the farmer's fear. As he slowly acknowledges what the Colonel is working out, his level of fear is increasing. When the floor is being shot, his fear is at his highest.

As consequence, this clip from Inglorious Basterds does conform to The Rule of Six.